It is important to know right from wrong Essay

During this essay I am going to try to prove that it is important to know right form wrong. I am also going to explain how different cultures; backgrounds and circumstances can change people’s morals on right and wrong. An example of how people morals can changes due to circumstances is war. How is war different to murder? War can be defending the country you live in from being invaded and taken over. If your countries soldiers don’t shoot the invading soldiers then you would either be dead or living somewhere everything about you is considered wrong just because of you nationality. However, war can be attack where your country is the one who is invading another. But either way, does the little man have a choice? The little man has to do what his leader tells him to avoid being named a traitor or being killed by the enemy. In my opinion war isn’t murder. If both sides have weapons and neither side has a choice because if they don’t shoot first then they’ll end up dead. It’s a no win situation. However, a person who commits murder can have a choice. Murders can happen due to jealous or revenge or even pure hate of the person. But the murderer has a choice or whether or not to take someone else’s life. There is an exception in my opinion of somebody who is beaten up or constantly being injured by his or her spouse. I’m not saying women who get beaten up or men who do because it can happen both ways. There is a point in some people where they snap and can’t take any more and their hidden anger get released and they can murder someone in a moment of losing control. This does bring up the question ‘Is suicide murder?’ and one which I can’t answer myself for many reasons and therefore I’m unable to give my opinion on it. Some people may consider self harm to be a sickness and that even thinking about suicide is murdering yourself. If the life is yours to take who decides if you take it or not? Other people, maybe those who have considered it themselves believe it can be a way of escaping a situation rather than fighting through it and even that considering it is just bringing them to a conclusion that nobody else has reached yet. Is murder right or wrong? Murder is wrong in circumstances and can be right in others, the same for suicide. It all depends on the point of view that somebody looks at it from. There are always going to be exceptions in murder and suicide so nobody can give a clear right or wrong answer. Another example of right and wrong is the black and white version. The law is in black and white and doesn’t consider exceptions in many cases. The legal age of understanding the difference between right and wrong is ten years old in the United Kingdom. No child under the age of ten can be prosecuted and even those who are older are very rarely prosecuted as the CPS (Crown Prosecution Service) doesn’t always agree to go ahead with the cases. Some cases do go through such as the case when Robert Thompson and Jon Venables murdered James Bulger. The CPS did agree with prosecuting them as they had taken a life and the chance of getting a conviction was realistic. The law has to be in black and white to ensure they treat everybody equally To know the difference between right and wrong you have to have substantial judgement to know when something you are doing is wrong. Growing up living in a location where burglary and violence are everyday occurrences can tilt the persons point of view on right and wrong. Circumstances can change the way their view is on different situations and the basic common sense that people have can cause the person to have different outlooks on different situations. This can cause their view of right and wrong to lead them to things they wouldn’t do other wise and end up in prison for committing a crime that they didn’t even know is wrong. Is it possible to unknowingly do something wrong? I believe that it is possible to do something wrong without realising it is wrong. It depends on common sense and the situation. In my opinion it is important to know the difference between right and wrong. If you don’t then you can do things unknowingly that are wrong and kill somebody due to not understanding the consequences of your actions. This makes it important to know the difference and be able to judge a situation on whether it’s right or wrong yourself. Ethics and morals are part of everybody’s opinions on whether something is right or wrong that means that your opinion has more influence on your actions and the way you treat other people than you realise. The problem with just saying it is wrong to murder or war is murder is that things aren’t that simple. The world isn’t in black and white like the law, it is in colour and so many things and situations have an exception, which is why people have to understand the difference between right and wrong so they can be able to judge the world for themselves.

Positive Behaviour Essay

Definition Behaviour that tends to satisfy the desires of the respondent is Positive Behaviour . It will become apparent that by this definition some positive behaviour may lead to antisocial (so called â€Å"negative†) responses and hence is not recommended. Furthermore, some behaviour that is itself socially acceptable and apparently positive is not, by this definition, actually positive because it does not tend to satisfy the desires of the respondent. The reverse is also true: some behaviour that is social not acceptable and apparently negative is yet actually positive because its operates to satisfy the desires of the recipient. Illustrations of Positive Behaviour Actions that can be classified under the following headings are customarily called positive: Showing interest Agreeing Making balance criticism Approving Showing affection Co-operating Protecting Praising Understanding Forgiving Although in some ways, the line between positive and negative behaviour exists in the eye of the beholder. Your value system, which stems from your family and cultural background as well as your own life experiences, will determine what you believe to be positive behaviour. Your feelings about yourself and life in general will also colour your perceptions. When adults feel positive about themselves, they are better able to understand and accept children’s behaviour. Positive behaviours are those which help children/venerable person move along toward the goal of becoming well-adjusted, fully functioning adults. In other words, behaviour that is typical of a particular stage of development, that paves the way for the next stage, is positive. Positive behaviour is not, therefore, the same thing as compliance with adult wishes, especially if those adult wishes reflect a lack of knowledge of children’s or venerable person’s development. Some positive behaviour can appear downright negative! Some authors argue that there are predictable times in the lives of all children/venerable person when their behaviour â€Å"falls apart†: when they seem to move backward in development in ways that perplex and dismay their parents and caregivers. These times invariably signal a rapid spurt of physical, cognitive, or socioemotional growth. An example might be the child on the verge of walking, whose frustration at being left behind evokes a sudden change in disposition and screams of rage. We can view these periods, not as crisis points, but rather as â€Å"touch points,† unparalleled opportunities for understanding and supporting development, if we anticipate them positively and avoid becoming locked in power struggles. By studying child/venerable person development and carefully observing the behaviour of many them, you can learn to adjust your expectations so that the behaviour you expect is within the bounds of possibility for children to achieve. By observing the behaviour of a particular child child/venerable person over time, you can begin to understand what particular behaviours mean for that person. You may begin to see how behaviour that seemed irritating to you actually serves a positive function for a child/venerable person. Focusing on positive behaviour places negative behaviour in better perspective and develops a more accurate impression of the whole child/venerable person. It allows you to emphasize strengths and help children overcome weaknesses.  Early childhood educators with heightened awareness of positive behaviours will set the stage so that those behaviours can occur, and will respond in ways that make these acts occur more often. In other words, they will use techniques of indirect and direct guidance. Positive behavioural support According the Department of health, Positive behavioural support (PBS) provides a framework that seeks to understand the context and meaning of behaviour in order to inform the development of supportive environments and skills that can enhance a person’s quality of life. Evidence has shown that PBS-based approaches can enhance quality of life and also reduce behaviours that challenge which in turn can lead to a reduction in the use of restrictive interventions. It is founded on principles that have applicability for a much broader range of people and may use different terminology. PBS provides a conceptual framework which recognises that people may engage in behaviours that are challenging because: †¢ they have challenging or complex needs that are not being met – these could be associated with unusual needs and personal preferences, sensory impairments, or mental or physical health conditions †¢ they are exposed to challenging environments in which behaviours of concern are likely to develop – examples might include environments which are barren and lack stimulation, where there are high levels of demand placed on people, where there may be institutional blanket rules, restricted or unpredictable access to preferred activities and those things the person values and where there is insufficient availability of positive social interactions, or where personal choices are not offered and/or honoured †¢ they typically have a generally impoverished quality of life. PBS approaches comprise a number elements: †¢ Using person-centred, values-based approaches to ensure people are living the best life they possibly can. This involves assisting a person to develop personal relationships, improve their health be more active in their community and to develop personally. When done properly, person centred planning processes make sure that those who support people get to know them as individuals. †¢ Skilled assessment in order to understand probable reasons why a person presents behaviours of concern; what predicts their  occurrence and what factors maintain and sustain them (this area of assessment is often referred to as a functional assessment). This requires consideration of a range of contextual factors including personal constitutional factors, mental and physical health, communication skills and the person’s ability to influence the world around them. Patterns of behaviour provide important data, skilled analysis of which enables key areas of unmet need to be understood. †¢ The use of behaviour support plans which have been informed by an assessment of these factors in order to ensure that aspects of the person’s environment that they find challenging are identified and addressed, that quality of life is enhanced and that wherever possible people are supported to develop alternative strategies by which they can better meet their own needs. These are referred to as primary preventative strategies. †¢ The behaviour support plan must detail the responses such as de-escalation techniques, distraction, diversion and sometimes disengagement to be used by carers/staff when a person starts to become anxious, aroused or distressed. These are referred to as secondary preventative strategies and aim to promote relaxation and avert any further escalation to a crisis. †¢ Behaviour support plans include guidance as to how people should react when a person’s agitation further escalates to a crisis where they place either themselves or others at significant risk of harm. This may include the use of restrictive interventions. Within behaviour support plans these are as identified as tertiary strategies. Any person who can reasonably be predicted to be at risk of being exposed to restrictive interventions must have an individualised behaviour support plan. Care programme approach care plans, personal recovery plans or other personalised approach planning structures may also incorporate behaviour support plans. They must always include clear evidence of health and social needs assessment, and be created with input from the person, their carers, relatives or advocates. This should identify: †¢ The context within which behaviours of concern occur †¢ Clear primary preventative strategies which focus on improvement of quality of life and ensuring that needs are met †¢ Secondary preventative strategies which aim to ensure that early signs of anxiety and agitation are recognised and responded to †¢ Tertiary strategies which may include detail of planned  restrictive interventions to be used in the safest possible manner and which should only be used as an absolute last resort What are the Positive Strategies for Supporting Behavior Improvement? There are many possible contributors to the development of challenging behaviours. It is important to investigate and evaluate these, but also to take action sooner rather than later, since many behaviors can become increasingly intense and harder to change as time goes on. Often a necessary approach to managing behaviour involves a combination of addressing underlying physical or mental health concerns, and using the behavioral and educational supports to teach replacement skills and self-regulation. There is no magic pill, but there are a number of strategies that can often be helpful. The use of Positive Behavior Supports is more than just a politically correct approach to behavior management. Research shows that it is effective. The alternative is usually punishment, which decreases the likelihood of a behavior by taking something away (such as removing a favorite toy) or doing something unpleasant (yelling, spanking.) While punishment might work immediately, it has been shown to be ineffective in the long run and can increase aggressive behavior, provide a model for additional undesirable behaviors, and strain the relationship with the caregiver (you). It is worth noting that to continue to be effective and maintain improvements, positive supports and feedback need to be ongoing as well. â€Å"Withholding reinforcement for problem behavior (i.e., extinction) is technically an example of punishment. Proponents of Positive Behavior Support (PBS) acknowledge that controlling access to reinforcement is necessary when trying to change behavior. What PBS does not condone is the use of aversive (e.g., demeaning, painful) procedures to suppress behavior. Such approaches have been demonstrated to be ineffective in producing durable changes in people’s behavior and do not improve to quality of their lives.† –Association for Positive Behavior Support If you have made changes to improve your child’s health or happiness, and these have not helped to improvehis behaviour in a reasonable time frame (a couple of weeks), or you are concerned about safety, help may be needed. Positive strategies and an intervention plan can be developed by a behavioral or educational team, usually in response to what is learned in a functional behavior assessment  (FBA) as described in the previous section. When several challenging behaviors exist, it is important to establish priorities. You may want to first target behaviors that are particularly dangerous, or skills that would help to improve situations across several behavioural scenarios. Remember to set goals that are realistic and meaningful. Start with small steps that can build over time. A non-verbal child is not likely to speak in full sentences overnight, but if learning to hold up a ‘take a break’ card when he needs to leave the table allows him to exit, and keeps him from throwing his plate, that is a huge success. A plan for our team should meet four essential elements: Clarity: Information about the plan, expectations and procedures are clear to the individual, family, staff and any other team members. Consistency: Team and family members are on the same page with interventions and approaches, and strive to apply the same expectations and rewards. Simplicity: Supports are simple, practical and accessible so that everyone on the team, including the family, can be successful in making it happen. If you don’t understand or cannot manage a complicated proposed behavior intervention plan, speak up! We have to recognize that many skills take time to develop, and that changes in behavior require ongoing supports to be successful. In some cases, especially when you are ignoring a behavior that used to ‘work’ for your child, behavior may get more intense or more frequent before it gets better. Your team should keep good records and track progress and responses to intervention to know if the plan is effective. Being realistic at the outset is crucial. It can help parents and caregivers appreciate that they are making small yet meaningful changes in their lives and the lives of the individual they care for. Making goals realistic means they are achievable. Being realistic keeps the picture positive. It focuses attention on progress towards to a goal, rather than perfection. Setting a real Positive Behaiviour Support Our team should develop strategies for you to use to increase the behaviors you want to see in your child. These will need to be individualized to his  particular needs and challenges. They can often be helpful in building a sense of pride in accomplishments and personal responsibility, and a sense of what is expected. This will reduce the anxiety and reactivity that results in aggression or other behaviors. Some helpful strategies: Celebrate and build strengths and successes: we tell him what he does well and what you like. A sense of competence often fosters interest and motivation. Strive to give positive feedback much more frequently than any correction or negative feedback. ‘Great job putting your dishes in the sink!’ Respect and listen to him: We may have to look for the things he is telling you, verbally or through his choices or actions. ‘You keep sitting on that side of the table. Is the sun in your eyes over here?’ Validate his concerns and emoti ons: Do not brush aside his fears or tell him not to worry. His emotions are very real. Help to give language to what he is feeling. ‘I know you do not like spiders. I can see that you are very afraid right now.’ ‘I can see that you are angry that our plans have changed.’ Provide clear expectations of behavior: Show or tell your child what you expect of him using visual aids, photographs or video models. A great way to teach new skills is Tell-Show-Do. Set him up for success: Provide accommodations. Accept a one word answer instead of demanding a whole sentence. Use a larger plate and offer a spoon to allow him to be neater at the dinner table. Use Velcroshoes or self-tying laces if tying is too frustrating. Ignore the challenging behavior: Do your best to keep the challenging behavior from serving as his way of communicating or winning. This is hard to do, but in the long run it is effective. Do not allow his screams to get him out of brushing his teeth, or his biting to get him the lollipop that he wants. Behaviors may get worse before you start to see them get better. Stay the course! And make sure all family and team members are consistent in this approach and that you pair this with other positive strategies. Alternate tasks: Do something that is fun, motivating or that your child is good at. Then try something hard. He will be less inclined to give up or get agitated if he is already in a positive framework. Teach and interact at your child’s or loved one’s learning level: Take care to set him up for growth and accomplishment, rather than the anxiety produced by constant failure or boredom. Give choices, but within parameters: Everyone needs to be in control of something, even if it is as simple as which  activity comes first. You can still maintain some control in the choices that you offer. ‘Do you want to eat first, or paint first?’ Provide access to breaks: Teach the individual to request a break when he needs to regroup (e.g. use a PECS card that represents â€Å"break†). Be sure to provide the break when he asks so he learns to trust this option and does not have to resort to challenging behaviors. Promote the use of a safe, calm-down place: Teach him to recognize when he needs to go there. This is a positive strategy, not a punishment. Set up reinforcement systems: Use simple, predictable processes that reward your child for desired behavior. Catch him being good and reward that, verbally and with favored activities, objects or ‘payment.’ ‘I love that you stayed with me during our shopping trip. You earned a ride on the airplane toy!’ Allow times and places for him to do what he wants: Even if it is a ‘stim’, it is important to provide these options when it is not an intrusion or annoyance to others. Reward flexibility and self control: ‘I know you wanted to go to the pool today and we were surprised when it was closed. For staying cool and being so flexible about that change in plans, let’s go get some ice cream instead!’ Pick your battles: Strive for balance. Focus on the behaviors and skills that are most essential. Be sure to include positive feedback and intersperse opportunities for success and enjoyment for you, your family, and your loved one with autism. Be resilient. Celebrate the fun and the good things! Use positive/proactive language: Use language that describes what you want the individual to do (e.g. ‘I love how you used a tissue!’ ), and try to avoid saying ‘NO’, or ‘don’t’ (e.g. ‘stop picking your nose.’ ). Setting Realistic Behavioral Goals: Setting goals allows us to objectively measure progress toward an identified desired outcome. It also allows caregivers and parents to ask themselves, â€Å"What behavioral changes would really make the greatest improvements in our lives together?† It allows them to identify what really matters. For instance, it may be more important to address a behavior such as throwing things during a classroom activity than to address that person’s tendency to stand up during meals. Adapt the Environment As you learn to think like a detective about your child’s behaviour, your observations (or the FBA) are likely to show that behaviour occurs at specific times, with certain people or in particular environments. You and your team will need to tune in, learning to recognize the signs of increasing tension, anxiety or frustration that eventually lead to challenging behaviours. Often there is a ramping up, or escalation period, and learning to recognize that early and using many of the approaches here can help to calm a situation and prevent behavioural outbursts. Sometimes these signs may be very subtle—red ears, a tapping foot, heavier breathing, higher pitched speech—but it is essential that everyone on the team responds to the importance of tuning in and working towards de-escalation. Changing the environment can often reduce behavioral episodes. Expand situations, relationships, places and opportunities that are successful. If possible, try to adjust or avoid situations that are triggers for challenging behaviour. Incorporate ways to reduce frustration and anxiety and increase understanding. Below are some things to consider when working to create a more successful environment: Organize and provide structure: Provide clear and consistent visual schedules, calendars, consistent routines, etc. so that the person knows what is coming next. Inform transitions and changes: Recognize that changes can be extremely unsettling, especially when they are unexpected. Refer to a schedule, use countdown timers, give warnings about upcoming changes, etc. we can use Visual Supports: Pictures, text, video modeling and other visuals are best for visual learners, but they are also critical because they provide information that stays. The ATN Visual Supports Tool Kit provides a step-by-step, easy-to-understand introduction to visual supports. Provide a safe place and teach when to use it: A calming room or corner, and/or objects or activities that help to calm (e.g. bean bag) provide opportunities to regroup and can be helpful in teaching self-control. Remove or dampen distracting or disturbing stimuli: Replace flickering fluorescent lights, use headphones to help block noise, avoid high traffic times, etc. Pair companions or staff appropriately for challenging activities or times: Some people are more calming than others in certain situations. If going to the store with dad works better than with  mom, focus on that and celebrate successes. Consider structural changes to your home or yard: These changes might address some of the specifics of your situation to increase independence or reduce the risks when outbursts occur. Making Homes that Work includes a range of potential changes that can be made to reduce property damage, improve safety, and increase choice and independence. Communicate to Others Many families have found it helpful to communicate to those around them about their child’s special needs and some of the behavioral situations that might arise. Sometimes it is helpful to let others know what is going on so that they can also be observers and help provide helpful input about your child. Some families have found it helpful to talk to their neighbours, or to communicate with others in the community using stickers, cards, or other visuals. Parents can carry a note card standing such this one : Positive and Proactive Care: reducing the need for restrictive interventions People with learning disabilities whose behaviour is challenging will have physical interventions used on them at some point in their lives. In the absence of a lawful reason, using force, or threatening to use force, could give rise to a criminal charge, as could locking someone in their room. The Mental Capacity Act defines the unlawfulness, and the appropriate penalties for actions of illtreatment or neglect. A physical intervention in relation to challenging behaviour is described by the British Institute for Learning Disabilities (Harris et al, 1996) as ‘A method of responding to the challenging behaviour of people with learning disability and/or autism which involves some degree of direct physical force which limits or restricts the movement or mobility of the person concerned.’ They define three types of physical intervention direct physical contact between a member of staff and a service user: for example holding a person’s arms and legs to stop them attacking someone the use of barriers such as locked doors to limit freedom of movement: for example placing door catches or bolts beyond the reach of service users materials or equipment that restricts or prevents movement: for example placing splints on a person’s arms to restrict movement. The Department of Health/Department for Education and Skills guidance (2002) outlines the requirements when physical intervention are planned and these include agreement by the multidisciplinary team, including consultation with others as appropriate put in writing, together with the behavioural plan (they should never be the only plan for managing behaviour) be supervised by appropriately trained staff  be recorded, so that the circumstances of any physical intervention and methods used can be monitored. This guidance also emphasises that the physical interventions should be used as infrequently as possible be in the best interests of the service user be part of a broader treatment strategy not cause injury maintain the person’s dignity. And also, The Human Rights Act (HRA)15 imposes a duty on public authorities, (including NHS Trusts, Local Authorities, and police forces) and services exercising functions of a public nature not to act in a manner that is incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights13 (ECHR) rights that have been made part of UK law by the HRA.

National Initiatives Essay

Many national initiatives have been developed over the years as society becomes more progressive and tolerant, the results of these legislative regulation at every level from international law all the way down to individual practice policy have an effect on anti-discriminatory practice in health and social care systems Conventions and fundamental and regulation European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 Article 14 in this convention concerns discrimination and prohibits discrimination based on many different factors such as Race, Sex, Age etc. It also can extend to protect against discrimination of different sexual orientation and legal rights of people under national law. In terms of Health and social care and anti-discriminatory practice this Article is very important as it sets the basis for a non-discriminatory Health a Social care System. This article states in essence that by and large everyone has the right to be treated without being discriminated against for any illogical reason such as a person not being treated because they mentally Ill. It should mean also that more health professionals cannot be hired based on discrimination from the employer against other applicants. E.G a dental practice picks a Caucasian applicant over an Asian Applicant based purely on their own prejudice against Asian people. Sex Discrimination Act 1975 This act dictates that men and women are protected by law from being discriminated against on the bases of their sex or marital status. This act gives men and women the rights to the same level of treatment by health professionals and to attain the same positions as one another. This makes a more diverse workforce and in health & social care which is a diverse environment, this is a good thing. Codes of Practice and Charters Codes of practice are enforced by individual practices and Healthcare Centres, These are all similar in most respects but usually are specified to the practice itself. For example a Dentist and a Hospital for the mentally infirm will have different codes of practice due to the complete difference in patient, treatment and the overall healthcare plan. But this show’s just some of the benefits and uses of practice codes in healthcare as it allows room for maximum patient care. These codes of practice however generally address what is considered to be discrimination in the practice and what sanctions follow if any of these codes are broken. This helps to ensure that all employees are aware what discriminatory practice is and this allows no excuse when discriminatory practice is carried out by and employee. Organisational Policies and procedures Organisational policies and procedures affect various things in health & social care including positive promotion of individual rights, advocacy, staff development and training, complaints procedures, confidentiality. Promoting individual rights Individual rights cover a large range of rights and good organisational policies cover the protection of these against discrimination. People’s individual rights in the health and social system must be protected against any infringement on them e.g. their personal beliefs. Advocacy An advocate is someone who stand’s in the place of and speaks for someone who is not able to represent themselves, e.g. an advocate for a mental patient or a child. This person is responsible for said person and should only act in their best interests. Advocates promote anti discriminatory practice by giving a voice to those without one, stopping discrimination based on lack of social ability. Staff development and training It is essential that staff are trained properly in anti-discriminatory practice, this allows them to develop as professional’s with a duty to uphold the rights of individuals and to work against discrimination where seen. Complaints procedures and confidentiality Complaints procedures must be followed up quickly and efficiently as any possible discrimination must be investigated and also that complaints processed properly can make for improvements in the delivery of healthcare. Patient’s confidentiality must be kept at all times as any illness is private to whomever has it. National initiatives are in place for a reason, practices are still working every day to promote anti-discriminatory practice, the idea to produce an equal, quality and efficient healthcare system that works for everyone is still not a complete reality but with more initiatives and good practice it could be.

An investigation of mediating effects on the core-self evaluation and Assignment

An investigation of mediating effects on the core-self evaluation and organizational commitment relationship - Assignment Example The decisions involving career planning needs to be done meticulously with emphasis given on individual strengths, weaknesses, skills, interest areas, motivational aspects and psychological assessment of the required job. The portfolio will deal with all the individual aspects and evaluation plans which can justify my key strengths and capabilities in finding the right job as per my professional capabilities. CV The making of Curriculum Vitae is the first step of the Personal Development Plan which highlights the key areas of interest, skills and expertise of a person. The best way of constructing a CV is to make it short, precise and emphasize on the points which matters the most to the companies like key areas of expertise, work experience in dealing with specified domains. CURRICULUM VITAE Steven Paul Birmingham, UK Cell phone: (+44) 7831310254 E-mail: spaul@yahoo.com OBJECTIVE Knowledge Acquisition and a learning drive are the motivating factors of my professional life which has helped me develop my professional goals and ambition. I am looking forward to a full time opportunity to work in a dynamic business environment. PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES Excellent interpersonal and communication skills Ardent believer in team work. Strong Management capabilities and experience to lead big teams. Project initiation and development. Self-motivated, hardworking and reliable Hunger to learn and acquire new skills, methods and procedures Computer skills: MS Office, MS Projects, Tally WORK EXPERIENCE 2007 till Date KPMG Project Leader Led a team of 10 people doing audit for client Held regular meetings with team for work assessment Gave Power Point presentations to the management for projects being carried out on a regular basis. ACHIEVMENTS/CERTIFICATES 2010 Diploma certification in Hedge Funds 2006 Certification in Science from Heritage Institute of Technology 2005 School Topper EDUCATION 2008-2010 Masters of Business and Administration from Durham University with specializa tion in Finance. 2005-2008 Bachelors in Science from University of Wales LANGUAGES Able to speak fluent English and French HOBBIES Reading; Playing sports REFERENCES: Available upon request Covering Letter To, The Human Resource Head Home Retail Group London, United Kingdom Sub: Application for the position of Financial Analyst Sir, This is to inform you that I wish to offer my candidature for the post of financial analyst. I am an MBA from Durham University with major in Finance. My key area of specialization is that of a management consultant. I have good domain knowledge of operations and logistics which I combine with my financial expertise to tell the management what would be the correct step forward. I have done years of research in Durham University which has helped my cause with enough industry experience. I would like to be given an opportunity to give a presentation to you where I can show my strengths and answer business related queries of yours. Thanking You, Yours truly , Steven Paul Job Market The world market was under recession in 2008 when the economy was in shatters with the top banking firms collapsing due to financial crisis which was more of a policy failure with huge financial credits given being unrecoverable. This had put the economy under severe recession and my firm was also retrenching candidates. From that stage the economy has recovered and so has the job market. The current job market in the accounting sector in 2012 has again seen a boost compared to the dip

CUSTOMER FEASIBILTY ANALYSIS Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

CUSTOMER FEASIBILTY ANALYSIS - Research Paper Example The plan for the proposed restaurant is divided into different sections Micro –Level Market Assessment This section reveals the target market intended by the restaurant to offer its products. Family with children and tourists of all age group irrespective of their appetite are the major target customers. Macro Level Market Assessments This section illustrates the market size and growth option for the restaurant. Accordingly, the population of the region is rising at a constant speed and the number of visitors also is increasing. Hence, the market size is relatively large and there also lies greater opportunities for the restaurant to expand the business. Macro Level Industry Assessment This section postulates the food and drink industry assessment. Accordingly, the bargaining power of customers, competition, threat of substitutes, threat of new entrants and suppliers bargaining power are moderate to high in the region. Micro Level Industry Assessment This particular section de picts the financial forecast for the proposed business. Accordingly, the start-up cost for the restaurant is estimated to be ?214,000. Accordingly, for the first four months of the start-up year, it is projected that there will be no profit. However, it is expected that the restaurant will gradually start earning substantial revenue and it is projected that the total revenue of the restaurant will exceed ?2 million. Team Assessment During the early stage of its commencement, 10 skilled and competent employees will be hired. The role of each staff will be to offer quality services to the potential customers. Summary and Conclusion This section summarizes the important points revealed in the report and duly concludes the report. To sum up, it has been ascertained that the idea of starting hala restaurant is projected to be immensely beneficial for the owners and at the same time it has potential opportunity to expand the business in the long run. SECTION 2 Micro –Level Market A ssessment: Overview of Primary and Secondary Research Undertaken To start up a business, it is essential to conduct research as the basis for the business plan in order to forecast the potential sales and growth for the proposed business. Thus, in order to execute the business plan of opening a hala restaurant in Liverpool, both primary and secondary research were conducted for ascertaining the viability of the proposed business plan. Correspondingly, secondary research was conducted using industry profiles, newspapers, demographic profiles and magazines. Additionally, primary research was conducted using yellow pages to identify competitors existing in the target market. Target Market and Its Pain Identified The proposed hala restaurant intends to operate in Liverpool. This location has been chosen due to various reasons. One of the most imperative reasons for the selection of the target market is that there are not many hala restaurants operating in Liverpool. Another vital reason for choosing Liverpool as the target market can be attributed to the constant increase in the number of visitors to the city. Despite the fall in the number of travellers visiting the United Kingdom, there has been a significant increase in the number of visitors visiting Liverpool (BBC, â€Å"Liverpool Area Tourism Figures Increase†). Correspondingly, this restaurant will offer an attraction for the local population irrespective of the age or appetite. At the same time, families with school

Te Uku - wind farm project Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Te Uku - wind farm project - Assignment Example t which is the first of its kind in New Zealand was commissioned in 2010 and successfully built by a joint alliance between a giant electricity generating and retailer company known as Meridian Energy and WEL Networks which is a lines company (WEL Networks, 2010). At its full capacity, the Te Uku - wind farm project is estimated to have a potential of generating up to 65MW of electricity which is currently enough to power more than 30, 000 local New Zealand homes. This is critically important not only to the local populations but also to the government of New Zealand (NZWEA, 2010). For example, apart from the local benefits, the project not only adds to New Zealand’s growing portfolio of renewable energy sources but is also set to contribute towards the country’s energy self sufficiency goals. This report provides a critical overview of Te Uku - wind farm project, reasons for its success as well as its potential outcomes to the region. The planning as well as the successful management of the Te Uku Wind farm project was primarily carried out and supervised by a team consisting of members from five different companies. For example, the principal project engineers who were largely responsible for overseeing the civil engineering design and delivery of construction materials were from Bloxam Burnett & Olliver Company. On the other hand, Coffey Geotechnics provided geotechnical consultancy for the project including inspections and certification of earthworks and construction of turbine foundations. The other companies that were involved in the planning and management of the project included Hick Spartan Joint Venture which was the main contractor for roading and earthworks including the construction of turbine foundations, Coffey Information which provided field and laboratory testing and Siemens New Zealand which was responsible for the construction of the wind turbines (WEL Networks, 2009). With support from a number of sub-contractors and sub-consultants, the

Life in the U.S Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Life in the U.S - Essay Example Despite the current law enforcement strategies and awareness programs, the issue has turned to be a serious behavioral problem among adolescents. As per the findings of Holm et al (27), 80% of all smokers in the United States begin smoking even before the age of 18. With increased threat to health and personal integrity, the prohibition of teenage smoking has become the most essential legal concern. In the United States, there is no unified regulation on this issue and the minimum age restriction varies from state to state. Although ‘18’ is generally accepted as the minimum age, the decision is subjected to the discretion of states. According to the statistics of National Cancer Institute, tobacco use is the leading cause of preventable illness and death in the United States. The illness includes cancers of the throat, mouth, nasal cavity, stomach, kidney etc. The study also says that â€Å"smokers are six times more likely to suffer heart attack than non-smokers† and ‘in 2009 around 20.6 percent of U.S. adults were cigarette smokers’ (National Cancer Institute). Works Cited Holm, Nancy. Holm, Jeffrey et al. â€Å"Youth Tobacco Use Prevention Programs†. Adolescent Smoking and Health Research (Ed. Lapointe, Martin). US: Nova Publishers, 2008. Print. â€Å"Smoking†.

Learning Environment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Learning Environment - Research Paper Example Then, there is something called the honor code. "From 1913 to World War II, the honor system expanded to all academics, including problem sets, lab reports, and essays. After the war, with perhaps some influence from the military, the treatment of [school] property and the theft of personal belongings became an important part of honor [in school]" (History of the Honor System, 2002, p. 1). With the honor code, the responsibility for maintaining honor lies with the students. "One element of an integrity strategyis the use of an honor code, which has been related to a reduction in academic dishonestyHonor codes typically have some of the following characteristics: unproctored examinations, a pledge students sign on exams and assignmentsin which students are encouraged to reporttheir peers' academic dishonesty" (Konheim-Kalkstein, 2006, p. 169). Conversely, if students are furtive or are trying to cheat, most likely the fact is that they are simply dishonest. Simply put, academic honesty in the classroom can be difficult to maintain, especially if there is no way to assess the standards put in place by the teacher. Integrity is typically categorized as character. ... 169). The honor code may work, or it may not, depending upon the individual students' level of honesty. If they are generally morally-abiding students, they are less likely to cheat or lie. Conversely, if students are furtive or are trying to cheat, most likely the fact is that they are simply dishonest. Simply put, academic honesty in the classroom can be difficult to maintain, especially if there is no way to assess the standards put in place by the teacher. III. Implications of Different Theories in Integrity Integrity is typically categorized as character. "Integrity is one of the most important and oft-cited of virtue terms," and here four types of integrity will be discussed: integrity as standing for something; integrity as moral purpose; integrity as virtue; and integrity in relation to social and political conditions (Integrity, 2008, p. 1). Cheshire Calhoun, in his piece Standing for Something, notes that "integrity hinges on acting on one's own views, not the right views (as those might be determined independently of the agent's own opinion)" (Calhoun, 1995, p. 250). Standing for something is typically seen as weak in some circles. However, having the courage to stick to one's morals or values in life is commonly seen globally as a strength. There is the old saying which many know, "Stand for something or you'll fall for anything." Many times people have to rely on their gut instinct in order to know what to do in a particular situation. Let's take a particular situation, where a student is faced with the opportunity to cheat off another student's work in class. Realistically, the student may just cheat. However, perhaps the student may

Explaining The Process Of Portfolio Management For Stock Funds Research Paper

Explaining The Process Of Portfolio Management For Stock Funds Performance - Research Paper Example Subsequently, as an investor, the third step of portfolio management is asset allocation that is able to make an attempt of satisfying investors' needs and objectives and at the same time, help in making decision regarding the proportion of wealth invested in each major asset categories (Bodie et al., 2005). As an investor, the main aim of asset allocation and investment is capital appreciation. I intend to make sound investment decisions while maintaining a level of moderate risk tolerance in the pursuit of high return. Hence I will define myself as a moderate investor with a risk aversion of 6 (Bodie et al., 2005). Considering my age, I am a young investment with a long investment horizon, hence my investment decisions will be based on less need for immediate liquidity, long term investment need and at the same time be able to tolerate greater risk in the short time. In the macro level, my investment decisions will be affected by the overall economic growth of the country and regio n and at the same time government decisions like Tax concerns and regulatory factors. Therefore, considering the objectives and constraints presented above, I would be better off if investing in risky assets in pursuit of higher returns. With a risk aversion of 6, I would invest my wealth in stocks while allocating remainders to treasury bills. The important elements of my investment portfolio strategy is my current assets, time horizon,  expected return, tolerable losses, and portfolio benchmarks and they are explained below. Current Assets As an investor, the total net assets available is $10,000,000 in assets.   Time Horizon The investment that is intended has one year time horizon.   Overall Portfolio Expected Annual Return As an investors, I expects a portfolio return that is  5 percentage points above the rate of inflation.   I have arrived at this percentage due to the fact that inflation will vary over time; hence I am using the incremental return  over  inflat ion as a determinant of whether I am able to meet my goals. As a guideline, here are the real annual  returns (above inflation) that I use:   Large-cap stocks: 6.0% Mid/small-cap stocks: 6.0% International stocks: 7.5%   Bonds: 4.0% By creating a balanced portfolio, I will be able to have a blend of the returns mentioned above based on my asset-allocation mix. Loss Limit as a new investor, I would accept losing not more that 10% in the year of investment. At this rate with my tolerance for risk, I am willing to accept a loss of 10% and if my portfolio falls by more than he prescribed percentage, I will have to re-examine my portfolio and create a new portfolio for investment. Asset Allocation I will set the following  lower limits, targets, and upper limits for investment in each asset class.  Ã‚     Asset Allocation Lower Limit ( % ) Target ( % ) Upper Limit ( % ) Large-cap value stocks 30 25 25 Large-cap growth stocks 25 30 35 Mid/small-cap stocks 20 25 25 Internationa l stocks 25 20 15 By creating the above asset allocation, it is hoped that the portfolio investment will realise positive growth. If not, then the asset allocation will be rebalanced in the investment horizon. Evaluation Benchmarks It is important to evaluate myself by comparing the total return of each stock with its

Shear Testing in Made Ground Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Shear Testing in Made Ground - Essay Example otechnicians and construction firms to determine the usability of Made Ground through the estimation of its strength and necessary properties (Bouazza et al., 1997). Made ground can be easily found all around us: they could be in the form of sandy, silt, clay and loamy soil (Bouazza et al., 1997). Shear Testing is a standardized laboratory test that has been used to detect the mechanical properties of Made ground, most especially its tensile strength (Woodward, 2005). Such a test is helpful in determining the usability of the ground and outlining the soil’s harmful contents that may make construction works on the ground impossible. In this case, serious consideration is given to the environmental impact of soil properties: how does the environment is affected by the constituents of a soil? Are there some harmful objects in the soil, for instance in brownfield and other abandoned property? (Geltman, 2000). Shear Testing of Made Ground can be simply carried out by using the Direct Shear Test (Das, 2008). Information about the standard reference, test expectations, equipment, test procedures, test data and analysis are provided as follows: Being the commonest method of discovering the tensile strength of soils, Direct Shear Test could help to estimate the angle of internal friction (Hillel, 1998). When plotting the shear stress against the horizontal displacement, the maximum, shear stress can be obtained. Therefore, after carrying out several vertical-confining stresses, it is possible to plot the maximum shear stress against the vertical confining stresses for each of the tests produced. Then a straight-line approximation of Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope curve could be drawn (Parry, 1995). And the shear strength of the soils under investigation could be estimated using the formula below: ix. I started the motor with chosen speed so that the rate of shearing is at a selected constant rate, and take the horizontal displacement gauge, vertical displacement gauge

Sensory perception Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Sensory perception - Essay Example Second, interpretation determines whether sensory information is accurate or inaccurate. Interpretation illustrates how individuals perceive different situations through thoughts and beliefs. Therefore, the way an individual interprets a situation determines the accuracy or inaccuracy of sensory information. Third, the way a person perceives events in his surrounding determines whether the sensory information is accurate or inaccurate. Humans only believe what they can perceive and deny anything that challenges their beliefs (Schacter, 2011). Therefore, people’s perceptions determine the accuracy or inaccuracy of sensory information. There are a number of factors that determine the accuracy of sensory data; three of them are cognitive capability, source of data, and reliability of observed facts. First, a person’s ability to evaluate sensory information is dependent on a healthy brain. The senses capacity is emphasized when a person’s brain stores sensory information. This means proper data will be perceived as accurate and incorrect sensory data passed on to the brain will be translated as inaccurate. Second, the source of data influences the accuracy of sensory data. Data or information is obtained from the sense of hearing, touch, smell, and sight. These senses provide accurate sensory information. In addition, a person’s senses should be able to nurture the brain so as to establish correct sensory perception of the information that is received by the brain. Finally, the reliability of observed facts also ascertains the sensory data’s accuracy. Picking up sensory data through defin ed examination will provide facts and information that are significant for thought linkage or accurate sensory perception (Robinson, 1994). Both nature and nurture play a significant part in understanding and assessing sensory data. Natural

NET framework and common language runtime Essay Example for Free

NET framework and common language runtime Essay The . NET framework is a component of Windows that enables the running of more advanced applications and XML Web services (DePetrillo, 2002). One of the main aim of coming up with this framework is to enable applications to have a consistent object-oriented programming methodology. It is also useful in that it eliminate software deployment and the execution of code safely without problems of scripting and interpreted environments. Microsoft. NET is also referred to as Windows DNA, it was a Microsoft’s previous platform used for developing all enterprise applications. It includes a variety of proven technologies which are in the production they include Microsoft Transaction Server (MTS) and COM+, Microsoft Message Queue (MSMQ), the Microsoft SQL Server database. Common Language Runtime provides the . NET framework applications an environment to execute. These language runtime includes common type system Just-in-time compiler, manages memory and gives compiler the security required. Design of . NET and Common Language Runtime (CLR) The design of . NE framework gives of room for interoperability. .NET frameworks have a way of allowing applications which were developed in the framework to still operate in environments outside of . NET environment. The ability to access COM components is made possible by . NET developers which are in the SRIS and the System Services namespace. With this platform, communication between old and new applications is increasing and is becoming a reality. The design of . NET and CLR also allows for security implementation for applications. .NET has two features for security for their mechanisms for security. These two features include validation and verification, and Code Access Security. The latter feature uses the association with specific assembly (DePetrillo, 2002). Normally, the assembly source acts as the evidence regardless of whether they are installed on the local machine or has been downloaded from the Internet. This mechanism uses evidence to determine permissions that are given to the code. With other code, they can demand that calling code be given a specific permission. This demand normally enables CLR to countercheck the permissions; called call stack walk. This is a situation whereby for every assembly of each method in the stack is scrutinized for the required permissions. An exception is thrown if an assembly does not have the right permissions. When an assembly is launched, the CLR performs very many tests. Two of the tests include validation and verification. The verification purpose is to check if the code will do anything which is not safe. Also, . NET framework uses appdomains to isolate code running in a process (DePetrillo, 2002). The appdomains help when there is a crash in a system. In case one application crushes in a system, the other applications within that system will not be affected. An example of security problem is the buffer overflows. This is taken care of with the use of . NET framework. The stability of . NET is assured because it brings with it the end of manual memory management. The . NET framework does memory management by itself thus freeing the user the burden of doing this. The memory that was allocated for instantiations of objects meant for . NET is done contiguously from memory heap. This heap is normally managed by CLR. The . NET also manages garbage collection. This is done by the garbage collector which is compacting and non-deterministic. Memory leakage is an example of stability issue that is solved with the use of . NET framework. The last design feature added to . NET and CLR is the addition of class libraries. These libraries help in maintenance of the applications because one does not have to create applications afresh. Someone seeking to add some more functionality to their applications or do some maintenance will just use the class libraries available at their disposal to achieve all these. The class libraries is a collection of thousands of interfaces, classes, structures and enumerations that are aimed at adding functionality of core system and application services in order to ease programming. There are various classes that someone can use to manipulate the file system. For example there are classes to manipulate XML files, classes to manipulate databases, and serialize objects. In addition to the availability of vast collection of libraries in . NET, the user also has the capability of creating their own classes which they can use in many applications (DePetrillo, 2002). Advantages and disadvantages of . NET Framework Microsoft. NET offers a variety of features such as the time-to-market which are not found in others like the J2EE. It gives a fairly complete solution from the single vendor-Microsoft which may lack some higher end features. With the Microsoft. NET there is one place to get similar information since there is no question of what is the shared context repository. There is an established passport which is an active system. Microsoft. NET gives one the language neutrality when coming up with their new eBusiness applications thus allowing one to view other languages as one application. The cons It does not support a true web services since it lacks the support for ebXML. Microsoft. NET does not give tactics for improving the performance thus not allowing the developers to introduce errors into their systems. It requires qualified developers who are well educated and can handle more hand-holding. It is difficult to maintain since the . NET supports Win32 only in which a large number of machines are required. Microsoft. NET web services are not interoperable with the present industry standards since their BizTalk framework has proprietary SOAP extensions which do not support ebXML. References DePetrillo, B. A. (2002). Think Microsoft. NET. Que.

Benefits Of Using Gis In Waste Management Environmental Sciences Essay

Benefits Of Using Gis In Waste Management Environmental Sciences Essay Solid waste management involves a number of stages starting from the choice of sites for landfill, collection, transportation and disposal of the solid waste. Both economic and environmental planners are concerned with the setting up of cost effective and environmentally friendly systems for solid waste management. Geographical Information System (GIS) is a tool that can provide spatial and non spatial information for urban planning and management. This paper focuses on the application of GIS as a planning and data collection tool in Solid Waste Management and analyses to what extent GIS is being used in solid waste management by the local authorities in Mauritius and also identifies the barriers to the proper use of GIS in this sector. A GIS model for the Grand Port-Savanne District Council (GPSVDC) a local authority in Mauritius is produced using ArcGIS software and this can be used as a decision support tool in planning waste collection and disposal. The Republic of Mauritius is a small island developing state (SIDS), situated at 800 km off the East coast of Madagascar at longitude 58 ° East and latitude 20 ° South in the Indian Ocean with a total surface area of 1870 km ². In addition to the island of Mauritius, the Republic includes the islands of Cargados Carajos, Rodrigues and the Agalega Islands. The main island of Mauritius has a population of around 1.28 million inhabitants. The rapid industrialization and urbanization during the past decade have led to changing production and consumption patterns that continue to present new demands for natural resources and create new waste streams. It is expected that solid waste produced in Mauritius is about 380,000 tons a year (or 1,200 tons per day) and is expected to reach 418,000 tonnes in 2014. The present strategy of disposing wastes  at the  landfill and/or dumping sites will in the long-run be no longer sustainable or appropriate with the rapid increase in waste gene ration, scarcity of appropriate landfill sites and the density of human settlement. The development of an integrated solid waste management strategy is among the priorities identified in the National Environmental Strategies to reduce future costs from environment degradation. Governments policy is to promote waste reduction, minimize its generation, encourage the adoption of environmentally sound methods of resource recovery and modernize the institutional and legal framework for the entire logistical chain collection, storage, transfer and disposal and introduce a cost recovery mechanism. There has been awareness regarding waste management amongst many countries. There has been development of new technologies for improving the waste management systems. GIS is one of the new technologies which have contributed a lot in very less time span to the waste management society. (Moiz Ahmed Shaikh, 2006) This paper analyses the benefits of using GIS as a tool in solid waste management and makes an assessment of how far GIS is being used by the local authorities in Mauritius and identifies the barriers to the use of GIS in solid waste management in Mauritius. A GIS model for the Grand Port-Savanne District Council (GPSVDC) a local authority in Mauritius is produced using ArcGIS software and this can be used as a decision support tool in planning waste collection and disposal. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN MAURITIUS Solid Waste Management in Mauritius falls under the responsibility of the Ministry of Local Government and Outer Islands. The main island of Mauritius has five Municipal Councils namely (i) Port Louis, (ii) Beau Bassin/Rose Hill, (iii) Quatre Bornes , (iv) Vacoas/Phoenix and (v) Curepipe. There are also four District Councils namely (i) Pamplemousses/Rivià ¨re du Rempart, (ii) Moka-Flacq, (iii) Grand Port-Savanne and (iv) Black River. Solid waste collection and disposal is undertaken by these local authorities in areas under their jurisdiction and is disposed of at the Mare Chicose landfill via a network of transfer stations situated in St Martin, Roche Bois, Poudre DOr and La Brasserie. Waste collection and disposal is also carried out by private companies on contract basis. The only landfill on the island is at Mare Chicose which is managed by a private contractor. With the increase in waste production the life span of the landfill is going on decreasing and soon there will be a n eed to increase the capacity of the landfill or to find another locality to set up a second landfill. The daily management of waste collection and disposal activities is carried out by officers of the Health Department of the Municipal Councils and the District Councils. 1.3 What is GIS? GIS is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing and displaying data related to positions on the Earths surface. Typically, a Geographical Information System is used for handling maps of one kind or another. These might be represented as several different layers where each layer holds data about a particular kind of feature. Each feature is linked to a position on the graphical image on a map and a record in an attribute table. GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. A GIS helps you answer questions and solve problems by looking at your data in a way that is quickly understood and easily shared. GIS technology can be integrated into any enterprise information system framework. 1.4 Uses of GIS in Solid Waste Management Solid waste management comprises several phases, starting from the stage where the waste is generated till it reaches its final destination or at a stage where it is no more a threat to the environment. It is observed that solid waste management can be bifurcated into mainly two phases. One is the waste management in the area where it is generated and second is the management of waste at dumping grounds. (Moiz Ahmed Shaikh, 2006). The development of Geographic Information System (GIS) and its use throughout the world has contributed a lot in improving waste management systems. GIS helps to manipulate data in the computer to simulate alternatives and to take the most effective decisions. GIS can add value to waste management applications by providing outputs for decision support and analysis in a wide spectrum of projects such as route planning for waste collection, site selection exercises for transfer stations, landfills or waste collection points. GIS provides a flexible platform w hich integrates and analyses maps and waste management databases. GIS allows us to create and store as many layers of data or maps as we want and provides various possibilities to integrate tremendous amounts of data and map overlays into a single output to aid in decision making (Chang et al. 1997). The changing production and consumption patterns have caused a rise in the volume of solid waste putting considerable pressure on Governments in dealing with the increased waste generation. It implies that local authorities will require huge capital investments and operational strategies for collection, transportation and disposal of solid waste. Delimiting factors such as limited financial resources have made it imperative to replace existing ad hoc methods employed in solid waste management and planning (Vijay et al. 2008). Sarptas et al. (2005) studied the use GIS in solid waste management in coastal areas as a decision support system with a case study on landfill site selection. The results of the study are that GIS is becoming a powerful tool in SWM. However there are still some drawbacks and deficiencies in applying the method extensively. For example, it is not applied in solid waste generation studies because large fluctuations in solid waste generation by time and space and the dynamic nature of urban areas generate several difficulties in determining the current solid waste generation patterns. In the early period of GIS technology, from the 1980s to the early 1990s, GIS software was capable of executing only basic geographical operations. These capabilities of GIS software limited the user to only basic tasks such as exclusion and allowed them to determine only alternative landfill sites in landfill siting applications. Advances in information technology and increasing access to computer system s by decision makers have improved the usefulness of computer models and computer aided technologies in DSS in the last decade. One of the typical examples is the SWM systems. The GIS models do not only support the decision procedure but also facilitate the communication and mutual understanding between decision maker and the people, because the implications of a SWM closely affects the society. However, the basic limitations in the use of GIS in SWM is the data availability. Because, especially in developing countries the available data are very scarce and access to the data is very poor and tiring. In addition, the existing data are not reliable, not collected, stored and disseminated systematically. More comprehensive researches and more efforts on data gathering to fulfill the needs of GIS models are recommended. Since routing models make extensive use of spatial data, GIS can provide effective handling, displaying and manipulation of such geographical and spatial information. For example, Ghose et al. (2006) proposed a model for the system of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) collection that provides planning for distribution of collection bins, load balancing of vehicles and generation of optimal routing based on GIS. According to Reddy et al. (2007), traditional and static approaches are no longer adequate for analyzing network flows and conducting minimum cost routing. Reddy et al. attempted to develop a decision support system for generating an optimum route for solid waste disposal in Hyderabad City and hence to reduce the distance ran by the collection vehicle using GIS. GIS tool provides an effective decision support through its database management capabilities, graphical user interfaces and cartographic visualization. The system developed by Reddy et al. used the Network Analyst module available in Arcview, which is a path-finding program used to model the movement of resources between two points or more. Chatila (2008) developed a GIS system for natural resources management and recycling of solid waste in the village of Marjeyoun in Southern Lebanon. A GIS map was prepared to serve as a zone management plan along with an environmental assessment that identifies cumulative pressures and impacts of some human activities on the village and the environment. A recycling program was developed based on solid waste sampling and analysis of collection systems. In a study carried out by Bergeron et al. (2010), 3D visualization and GIS were used to produce a digital city model for the Star City, West Virginia to allow government officials and managers to manage assets and perform day-to-day operations, develop sustainable planning initiatives, and management of solid waste assets and facilities, planning for solid waste and recycling facilities and drop-offs, mapping and planning efficient waste hauler routes and identifying issues such a underserved populations and illegal dumping. However, building and using a GIS requires expert knowledge, and can often prevent such systems from being used to their full capability by local officials. In addition, local government is often comprised of mature citizens who are committed to serving their community but may be wary of new technologies that are unfamiliar to them. 1.5 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The aim of this paper is to analyse the extent to which GIS is being used in waste management by the local authorities in Mauritius, to identify barriers to proper use of GIS in solid waste management and to assess to what extent GIS affects sustainable waste management as a decision support tool in planning waste collection, recycling, waste segregation and disposal in order to create cost-effective systems. Finally a model will be proposed for the Grand Port-Savanne District Council (GPSVDC) a local authority in Mauritius using ArcGIS software that could be used as a decision support tool in planning waste collection and disposal. The model produced will be used to store information regarding the existing collection routes, land use data, population data etc and data regarding the volume of waste produced. Based on these information decisions appropriate decisions can be taken to improve the existing solid waste management system and also predictions can be made for future plans. Hence, in short the aims of this project are mainly as follows: To identify to what extent GIS is being used in waste management in Mauritius. To identify barriers to proper use of GIS in waste management. To assess to what extent GIS affects sustainable waste management as a decision support tool in planning waste collection, recycling, waste segregation and disposal To carry out a case study for the Grand Port-Savanne District Council (GPSVDC) a local authority in Mauritius in order to produce a database for decision making. The paper will also carry out a literature study of some examples of GIS work for waste management. The study will include a discussion and a critical analysis of the models. The analysis of these studies will allow us to learn about the usefulness of GIS as a tool is solid waste waste management and these may be developed for Mauritius in the context of creating an Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan. Further to literature review, a number of hypotheses have been designed and have been described briefly GIS and Social Development H1: There is a significant link between GIS and Social Development. H0: There is no significant link between GIS and Social Development. GIS and Economic Development H1: There is a significant link between GIS and Economic Development. H0: There is no significant link between GIS and Economic Development. GIS and Environmental Development H1: There is a significant link between GIS and Environmental Development. H0: There is no significant link between GIS and Environmental Development. To achieve these aims, a logical step has been carried out to complete this project. The structure of the research gives an idea of the issues covered in this project. 1.6 Methodology In order to analyse the general waste management situation in the local authorities (Municipalities and District Councils) in Mauritius, a scientific approach was implemented to gather primary information which comprises of different steps. These steps are as follows: Step 1: The target group was identified. 30 officers working in the Local Authorities were interviewed. Alongside, a questionnaire vide Appendix 1, was designed to retrieve information from the respondents. Step 2: The 30 officers were interviewed and the questionnaire was used as a guide to ensure proper flow of questions. However, much emphasis was put in open ended questions so as to get maximum information concerning their point of view relating to the present waste management system. Step 3: The data collected was analyzed using SPSS and Excel whereby results were shown on a first instance in terms of descriptive statistics being line charts, bar charts and in terms inferential statistics being correlation, cross tabulation. Step 4: A list of recommendations and suggestions are given regarding the use of GIS in solid waste management in Mauritius and how they it can help in sustainable waste management. As well as, what can be done to mitigate the barriers that prevent the proper use of GIS. Chapter 2 GIS Model Analysis 2.1 Model 1 This is an overview and a discussion of the paper, A case study of fuel savings through optimisation of MSW transportation routes written by Gilberto Tavares, Zdena Zsigraiova, Viriato Semiao, Maria da Graà §a Carvalho published in 2008 in the Journal Management of Environmental Quality, Volume: 19 Issue: 4. At the end of the discussion there are critical views on this paper work. 2.1.1 Waste management background in Cape Verde This study has been carried out for Cape Verde where the demographic growth, tourism and other economic activities are putting enormous pressure on government. There is still evident lack of development plans, the existing waste management being rather poor and characterized by inefficient collection systems. (Gilbero Tavares, 2008) Besides, the negative impact of untreated waste on public health and on public concern, which focused the attention of engineers and scientists on the quest for waste management solutions viewing the prevention of undesired environmental effects, economy plays also an important role on this activity. In fact, collection and transportation of waste can absorb as much as 75 per cent of the municipalities MSWM budget that are usually the institutions responsible for such activities. (Gilbero Tavares, 2008) One of the heavy costs present in MSWM systems is the fuel price and its consumption is inevitably associated with undesired pollutants emissions. Therefore, the minimisation of fuel consumption to perform waste collection and transportation to its treatment or final disposal brings enormous savings and environmental benefits. 2.1.2 GIS approach The methodology used comprised of three phases. Phase 1 The model of the terrain and the road network A 3D model of the entire island of Santo Antao, Cape Verde was produced based on a digitised map provided in CAD files. The 3D model is generated as polylines based on contour lines that reflect the actual relief of the terrain. Using ArcGIS 3D Analyst, the 3D road network is then generated from both the 2D road network and the terrain model complying with the road gradients. This methodology makes possible the generation of road networks in the appropriate form allowing for the calculation of all inclinations of each road segment, which permits to determine the fuel consumption for both road directions (uphill and downhill). The 3D digital model and the road network obtained allows the large variability of the relief to be observed. Phase 2 Calculation of actual fuel consumption Fuel consumption during waste collection and transportation is influenced by the travelled distance and by the actual operation conditions of a given vehicle. These effects are incorporated in the model through the methodology established by Ntziachristos and Samaras (2000) in COPERT, which is a computer programme to calculate emissions from transport vehicles on road. (Gilbero Tavares, 2008) Besides considering specific vehicle parameters, the methodology also takes into account different driving conditions, namely the type of the driving situation, the vehicle load and the road gradient. The gradient of a road increases, when positive, or decreases, when negative, the resistance of a vehicle to traction. Therefore, and because of their large masses, the power employed during the driving is the decisive parameter for the fuel consumption. Once calculated, the fuel consumption value for each route arc is stored in the spatial data base to be used later during the route solver procedure that searches for the route with minimum fuel consumption. Phase 3 Optimisation of vehicle routing The efficiency of a management system that is able to solve problems related to vehicles circulation in road networks can be measured through its capacity to obtain optimised routes. For a system of MSW transportation, this consists of generating an optimal route for a given vehicle so that the value of the selected cost criterion is minimised. For the calculation of the optimal routing, the model used herein makes recourse to ESRIs programs ArcGIS, ArcInfo and Network Analyst extension, and it finds the minimum defined impedance path through a network. In order to compare solutions and clarify the potential of the present methodology, the routes are optimised regarding either the lowest fuel consumption or the shortest distance. Findings The findings of the study showed that the optimisation for the lowest fuel consumption yields 52 per cent savings in fuel, when compared to that for the shortest distance, even travelling a 34 percent longer distance, which shows the importance of considering simultaneously the relief of the territory and the lowest fuel consumption criterion when optimising vehicle routes. 2.1.3 Critical views With such a supporting decision tool savings in fuel are huge, the efficiency of management systems is improved and the environmental impact during daily operation is reduced. The GIS 3D route modelling takes into account the effects of both the road inclination and the vehicle load. The originality of the work lies in the chosen approach. To optimize vehicle routes the criterion of minimum fuel consumption rather than the commonly used shortest distance is used, since fuel consumption is the factor reflecting actual costs relative to MSW management. 2.2 Model 2 This is an overview and a discussion of the paper, A GIS Approach to Waste Management and Recycling in New York State. Written by Ghaly, Ashraf and published in 2009 in the journal Proceedings of the International Conference on Waste Technology Management, p1140-1150. At the end of the discussion there are critical views on this paper work. 2.2.1 Purpose of the study Solid waste and recycling programs requires management of large databases including collection data, transfer, processing, disposal, export, import, and future planning. The body of information involved in the decision making process is too challenging to effectively mange due to the many components it contains. A GIS approach takes advantage of the spatial nature of data presentation to illustrate the areas of strength in the system and to identify the areas in need for improvement. Such a system is not only useful to managers and state officials but it also is easier for the public to comprehend and appreciate. GIS also makes it easier to measure success and detect trends, which ultimately help improve the system to better manage collection, sorting, and recycling facilities. (Ghaly A., 2009) The existing recycling programs are put in place to reduce the use of virgin materials from forests, energy consumption, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and water pollution. These programs ultimate goal is to promote conservation and to encourage the members of the public to be active participants in this effort. This paper uses GIS to demonstrate, using maps, the current state of waste management and recycling efforts, future plans, and methods of measuring success across geographic boundaries. The paper concludes that a spatially-based management system offers advantages, which makes it superior to non-spatial systems. Data Collection This paper uses data published by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) for all the counties in the state to study the efficiency of the existing recycling programs and to find ways to optimize the use of landfills. This analysis is done for Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), industrial waste, demolition and construction debris, and for waste exported out of the state to neighboring North East states. For better management of solid waste in the state of New York, the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) maintains a comprehensive database on waste composition, pattern of waste generation, and methods of disposal. The success of this operation depends on the quality and accuracy of data collected. This data helps in the decision making process regarding the transfer and processing of solid waste, disposal, import/export, recycling, and in making plans for the future. To contribute to these efforts, the Northeast Recycling Council (NERC) developed an Environmental Benefits Calculator which generates estimates of the environmental benefits based on the tonnages of recycled materials. Environmental benefits metrics involves quantifying the reduction in use of virgin materials from forests, oil supplies, and mines; reduction in energy consumption; reduction of Green House Gas (GHG) emissions; and the reduction of water pollution, and conservation of natural resources. These are all goals that DEC is interested in increasing awareness for. Waste management and recycling are impacted by economic and political factors. These factors add a layer of complexity to the data collection process. Some of the concerns related to these issues are solid waste migration of recyclables across geographic boundaries, which involve dealing with regulations of various agencies and governments. In addition, the diversity and variety of recyclable materials add to the difficulty of compliance with required transportation methods across boundary lines. Four Phase Plan The DEC developed ambitious plans for data collection and analysis. This plan is made of four phases: Phase 1: Fill in data gaps by enforcing reporting requirements; researching recyclables data available from transfer or disposal facilities; and seeking voluntary data from non-regulated recyclers. Phase 2: Validate/improve data by using metrics to compare data from Planning Units and facilities; auditing a sampling of annual reports; include data source checks at facility inspections; and investing in electronic reporting mechanisms. Phase 3: Develop State policies to improve recycling by updating regulations to foster increased recycling; using permit conditions to promote best practices; involving State agencies/facilities; and incorporating these ideas into the State SWM Plan. Phase 4: Work with Planning Units to grow recycling by establishing more recycling metrics; reestablishing State promotion of 3Rs (reduce, reuse, and recycle); targeting higher recovery for paper and organics; and targeting outreach toward specific sectors such as government agencies, schools, and food service. Role of GIS in NYS Plan Data is the heart and soul of waste management analysis and future planning. In complying with their reporting requirements, the enormous number of facilities involved in waste management and recycling in NYS delivers tremendous amount of data. With its spatial nature as shown in the above maps, GIS can add a visual dimension to data that is otherwise too complex to comprehend. With more emphasis placed on enhancing reporting to comply with regulations, the bulk of the collected data is expected to increase and become more elaborate. It is believed that GIS with its excellent spatial techniques can help in the analysis phase and in the decision making process as well. Critical views A spatially-based geographic information system (GIS) for data management and analysis seems to be more capable of handling enormous amount of data similar to the volume collected by New York States Department of Environmental Conservation on solid waste and recycling activities in the state. With the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) aiming at improving reporting and analysis for better management, GIS can offer the tool necessary to accomplish these tasks with efficiency and ease. Based on this model, GIS can be used to collect data in respect of the type and volume of recyclable materials around the island of Mauritius. We can thus better plan the collection of recyclable wastes. 2.3 Model 3 This is an overview and a discussion of the paper, GIS Application in Coordinating Solid Waste Collection: The Case of Sinza Neighbourhood in Kinondoni Municipality, Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania. Written by Alphonce Kyessi and Victoria Mwakalinga and published in 2009 in the journal FIG Working Week 2009. At the end of the discussion there are critical views on this paper work. In this paper Alphonce Kyessi used GIS in ROUTING EFFICIENCY ANALYSIS FOR SOLID WASTE COLLECTION IN SINZA A NEIGHBOURHOOD IN DAR ES SALAAM. 6.1 Location Sinza A is one of five residential neighbourhoods of Sinza ward in Kinondoni Municipality in Dar es Salaam. Accommodation about 5,000 people, the neighbourhood is located about 12 kilometres from the Dar es Salaam city centre. The Kinondoni Municipal Council had contracted private companies and civil societies organisations in the collection of solid waste in residential neighbourhoods. Kimangele Company Limited is one of those private contractors. The routing system for Kimangele Company was studied in detail to assess the solid waste collection efficiency as shown in Figure 5 and 6. Figure 5: Location of Sinza A area for Kimangele Contractor Source: Mwakalinga, 2005 Kimangele plies from house to house to establish a solid waste collection system known as bring system in Sinza A. The bring system is done in big catchment areas i.e. above 50 metres in radius. Waste generation and collection Sinza A consisted of 876 households (Mwakalinga, 2005). Generally the area generates about 14.5 tonnes of waste per day. The waste composes of plastics, tins, organic food waste, packaging materials, clothes, metals and bottles. Out of the waste generated, the contractor collects 8.4 tonnes from households. The rest About 5.1 tonnes (47.7%) of waste are collected by informal collectors (using wooden carts) to designated collection centres. The rest (about 1 tonne) is haphazardly dumped in rivers, on roads sides, burnt or buried. About 160 households are not members of house to house collection service; they prefer using the informal collectors instead of the contractors trucks. When interviewed, these households complained of ineffective collection system by the Contractor. One of the given reasons was that the truck was not following the rout as agreed. Others households said the collection charge of TShs. 2000/= per household was too high. They were ready to pay only TShs. 500/= per house regardless the number households in the house. Figure 6: Collection Systems as applied by Kimangele Company in Sinza A Source: Mwakalinga, 2005 When the Contractor was interviewed in 2005, he replied that, out of 716 households he was serving only 70% paid the refuse collection charges (Mwakalinga, 2005). According to Figure 8 below, there are some areas where the truck drives twice creating overlaps. Normally, a truck stands at a pick-up point, about 50 meters from the other. In other circumstances, the distance is more than 50 metres, and as a result more waiting time by the truck is needed indicating that the whole system of waste collection was foiled. Work Organisation The collection frequency by Kimangele was done twice a week i.e. Wednesdays and Saturdays. The service starts at 6.30 am to 5.30pm. The truck was making two trips on each day due to the amount of waste generated and the ability of the truck to carry the waste. The route for the first trip starts at Superstar area and ends at Kivulini through Sam Nujoma road to Mtoni kwa Kabuma dump site, about 30 kilometres away (see Figure 7). The route for the second trip passes through Morogoro road via Shekilango road; the first point in this trip is Super Star Street ending at cafà © Latino Street. Thereafter the route enters Sam Nujoma road to the main dump site, Mtoni kwa Kabuma. Figure 7: Existing Route for Kimangele Company in Sinza A Neighbourhood 6.4

The Extraction And Purification Of Paracetamol Essay

The Extraction And Purification Of Paracetamol Essay Analysing the Quantity and Purity of Paracetamol Present in Different Formulations of the Commercial Medicine Aim The aim of this investigation was to determine the percentage by mass of pure paracetamol in formulations of branded paracetamol in 500mg tablets. Two techniques were used so as to determine this: -Extraction and purification of tablets by filtration and recrystallisation. -Hydrolysis of the drug under reflux followed by titration against ammonium cerium sulphate. In addition to this, the purity of the paracetamol was investigated by determination of melting point of the respective brands of paracetamol. Findings Using the extraction and purification procedure it was found that Tesco had the greatest percentage by mass of the active ingredient, paracetamol, at 46.8%. Morrisons tablet percentage by mass was 44.6% while Superdrug had a percentage by mass of 37.8%. Using the reflux and titration procedure it was found that Superdrug had the greatest percentage by mass of the active ingredient, paracetamol at 20.0%. The Tesco percentage by mass was 19.6% while Morissons was 18.5%. The melting point procedure concluded that all three crude samples had similar purity of paracetamol with melting point at 156oC. The melting point of the Morrisons recrystallised paracetamol was 168oC, Superdrug had a melting point of 165oC while Tesco had a melting point of 164oC. This shows that Morrisons had the highest purity of pure paracetamol followed by Superdrug and then Tesco. Underlying ChemistryHistory and Uses Paracetamol (C8H9NO2) (or acetaminophen) is the most common over the counter painkiller in the world. It was discovered in 1852 by Charles Fredric Gerhardt who later went on to discover aspirin. The drug is so popular due to the few side effects it has on the body and does not irritate the stomach like other commonly used drugs such as aspirin. The structure is as shown: Paracetamol is used for relief of headaches, fever, menstrual pain, back pain, toothache and other general pain; however it is ineffective against muscle pain as it possesses no anti-inflammatory properties. Non-opioid analgesics work by inhibiting an enzyme known as cyclooxygenase (COX). COX is a catalyst for the conversion of a fatty acid contained in cell walls—arachidonic acid—to substances known as prostaglandins. (tuftsjournal.tufts.edu.) Prostaglandins have many functions including the induction of pain. By reducing the production of prostaglandins the pain is relieved. Paracetamol does not affect the cause of the pain but rather combats the biochemical pathway which results in the feeling of pain. Prostaglandins also affect the hypothalamus in the brain, the centre which is responsible for the maintenance of our bodies internal environment despite changes to the external environment, i.e. homeostasis. The prostaglandins cause the body to raise its temperature, and hence by taking paracetamol the body temperature is lowered. Paracetamol is therefore classed as antipyretic as it lowers the body temperature. Due to these properties the drug is commonly used to combat flu and cold symptoms. The range of pain combatted by paracetamol alongside the fact that it has very few side effects has resulted in it being the most commonly used painkiller. Paracetamol is also popular because of the rate at which pain subsides from its use due to the rapid uptake in the body. Absorption: Rapidly and almost completely absorbed from the G.I. tract. Peak plasma concentrations are reached in 10-60 minutes.(labmed.yale.edu) Methodology Two techniques were used in the determination of the mass of active ingredient present in the tablets. The first was the extraction and purification of paracetamol from tablets. The second was an acid catalysed hydrolysis under reflux followed by titrations against ammonium cerium sulphate. The use of the melting point allowed the purity of the paracetamol to be determined. The extraction and purification of paracetamol This procedure extracted paracetamol from the tablets by crystallisation. The paracetamol tablets were crushed and dissolved in propanone at a raised temperature; this decreased the time required for the paracetamol to dissolve. The binding agents and fillers in the tablet are insoluble in propanone however the paracetamol is soluble. This results in the paracetamol forming a solution in the propanone while the other components of the tablet are left as insoluble residue. The solution was filtered to remove the residue. The filtrate was left to evaporate forming crystals of paracetamol. These crystals were then dissolved in hot water and then filtered through cotton wool to remove any binding agents left. This filtrate was left in the fridge and shards of paracetamol formed. This relies on the fact that paracetamol has a high solubility in hot water but a low one in cold water. This allows shards of paracetamol to form. The soluble impurities are only present to the level of a few percent and so never reach their limit of solubility and thus stay in solution. (Ellis, 2002) The pure recrystallised paracetamol was then dried and its mass measured. The percentage by mass was then calculated. Reflux and titrations This procedure required the paracetamol to be boiled under reflux for one hour with sulphuric acid. This acid catalysed hydrolysis broke down the paracetamol (an amide) into an amine (4-aminophenol) and a carboxylic acid (ethanoic acid.) The raised temperature was used so as thermally accelerate the reaction. The reaction is shown below: (Overall reaction) This reaction mechanism may be found in the appendix. The use of reflux apparatus ensured that the reaction vessel never boiled dry. This is because any vapour formed from heating in the reaction vessel was turned back into a liquid by condensation. The benefit of using a heating mantle was that it ensured that a constant temperature, heating the round bottomed flask over a greater surface area. This procedure produced 4-aminophenol. This has a hydroxyl group on carbon 1 and an amine group on the carbon 1. Since the nitrogen is attached to only one carbon it is a primary amine. The 4-aminophenol can then be oxidised using ammonium cerium sulphate, involving the loss of hydrogen from the 4-aminophenol using ferroin as an indicator. This produced iminoquinone. Only after all the 4-aminophenol has been oxidised will the cerium (IV) reagent oxidise the ferroin indicator from Fe2+ to Fe3+ (ferriin). (Ellis, 2002) This resulted in the colour change from red to yellow, as the red ferroin is oxidised to ferriin which is blue. This is shown in the diagram below When mixed with the ammonium cerium sulphate this produced a yellow colour which indicated the end point of the titration. A titration was also carried out without the test material being present and the difference between the values with the test species present and absent accounted for the mass of paracetamol present. The difference in volumes of titre required for the colour change is directly proportional to the mass of paracetamol present in the tablet (0.007560g per 1cm3 equivalent titre.) Melting Point By measuring the melting points of the given formulations, the purity of the paracetamol was able to be determined. Melting point apparatus worked by heating the species in a capillary tube which itself was inserted into a heating block. By looking through a lens at the species, the moment at which the species melted could be seen and then at this moment the reading on the thermometer could be viewed. When a substance is heated, there is an increase in entropy as the species is thermally excited. If enough energy is put into the substance, it results in a change of state, in this case solid to liquid. The three brands of paracetamol melting points were measured for the tablet, the crude and the recrystallised samples. Pure paracetamol is a white crystalline solid which melts at 169-171oC. (Ellis 2002). The impurities in the samples lower the melting points. The sample which was closest to the given melting point represents the purest sample of paracetamol. Procedures The Extraction and Purification of Paracetamol Please note this experiment was carried out twice for each brand and an average taken. This was then duplicated so as to improve the reliability. (This is shown in results as the replicate.) Paracetamol was extracted from three brands of paracetamol; Morrisons, Superdrug and Tesco. These procedures represent the procedure used for each brand. Two tablets were weighed using a balance (accurate to 2 D.P.) then crushed using a mortar and pestle. The ground tablets were placed in a beaker. 50cm3 of propanone was measured using a pipette. The propanone was used to rinse the mortar and pestle before adding it to the beaker. The beaker was left on a brisk stir at a low heat until the tablet was dissolved as far as possible. The insoluble material was the binding agents and fillers. Initially 20cm3 of propanone was used however it was found that the tablets did not dissolve fully. A Buchner Funnel was set up as shown (see left.) The insoluble material (binding agents and fillers) collects in the filter paper. The filtrate (propanone and paracetamol) is collected in the filtering flask. A little propanone was run through the filter paper so as to create a seal between the filter paper and the base as shown on the above diagram. This prevented the insoluble material from passing through the holes in the funnel. The content of the beaker was passed through the funnel and a little propanone was used to rinse the beaker. The filtrate was left in an evaporating basin overnight in an oven. This formed crude paracetamol crystals. The mass of the crystals was taken. The crystals were placed in a beaker and 20cm3 of hot water was added. The beaker was heated on a brisk stir until the paracetamol had dissolved. This was passed through a warmed wet piece of cotton wool in a warmed glass funnel. This was to prevent the paracetamol from recrystallising in the cotton during filtration. The filtrate was passed directly into a basin. The basin was placed in the fridge overnight to cool and to allow the crystals to form. These crystals were white. The recrystallised paracetamol in water was passed through a piece of fluted filter paper to collect the crystals. (Initially the paracetamol was filtered out of the water using a sintered glass crucible however this produced a lower yield as crystals were lost when using this technique. See table 22.) The filter paper and crystals were placed in an oven at room temperature overnight to allow the crystals to dry. These crystals were white. The dry mass of the crystals was measured. This procedure was replicated for each brand of paracetamol. Reflux and titrations Please note that this procedure was carried out once for each brand of paracetamol. This was then duplicated so as to improve the reliability. (This is shown in the results as the replicate.) The first stage of this procedure involved the acid hydrolysis of paracetamol: 15cm3 of 2 molar solution of sulphuric acid and 25cm3 of water were measured using a pipette and placed in a 100ml round bottomed flask. To this 0.30g of crushed (using mortar and pestle) paracetamol tablet was added, having measured the paracetamol using a balance (accurate to 2 D.P.) This was swirled and warmed until the tablet was dissolved. This was then boiled under reflux for one hour in a heating mantle as shown below: The paracetamol and sulphuric acid were placed nn the round bottomed flask. The solution turned from colourless to a light golden colour. The solution was cooled and 100cm3 of water was added. 20cm3 of the resulting solution was pipetted into a conical flask with 15cm3 of 2 molar Hydrochloric acid, 40cm3 of water and precisely 8 drops of ferroin indicator. This was then titrated against 0.1 molar solution of ammonium cerium sulphate until colour changed from a pink/peach colour to a cloudy yellow colour. (The colour change was not very obvious during this procedure. Therefore previous titration colours were kept beside the species to try to standardize the colour at which the end point of the titration was determined.) The titrations were repeated until two results were within 0.1cm3 of each other i.e. until two concordant results were obtained. The apparatus is as shown overleaf: The burette was filled with the yellow ammonium cerium sulphate solution and the conical flask contained the paracetamol acid mixture. This procedure was also repeated without the test material present. Melting Point During this procedure, the melting points of the recrystallised, crude and unaltered tablet forms of paracetamol were investigated. The sample of species was crushed into a powder using a mortar and pestle. Capillary tubes (1mm diameter, 10cm long) were sealed at one end using a Bunsen burner. This provided a place to hold the paracetamol when using the melting point apparatus. The capillary tube was placed turned open-side-down and pressed onto the paracetamol formulations. Then the closed end of the capillary tubes was gently tapped on the table to allow the paracetamol to fall to the closed end. This was then placed open-side-up into the metal heating block alongside a thermometer. The temperature was slowly increased using the thermostat on the melting point apparatus while the paracetamol was viewed through the magnifying glass on the apparatus. The point at which the paracetamol melted was then recorded. Results Initial Extraction and purification The crystals of the crude and recrystallised paracetamol were both white. The crude crystals were prismatic shaped while the recrystallised paracetamol formed long shards. Table 1 shows the mass of crude paracetamol from each tablet: Table 1 Brand Mass (g) Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Tesco 0.94 1.00 0.97 Morrisons 1.01 1.00 1.01 Superdrug 0.97 0.92 0.95 Table 2 shows the mass of recrystallised paracetamol from each tablet: Table 2 Brand Mass (g) Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Tesco 0.58 0.49 0.54 Morrisons 0.44 0.49 0.47 Superdrug 0.36 0.48 0.42 Table 3 shows the percentage by mass of crude paracetamol compared to the mass of two tablets (1.10g): Table 3 Brand Percentage of Crude Paracetamol (%) Tesco 88.2 Morrisons 91.8 Superdrug 86.4 (Calculations may be found in the appendix) Table 4 shows the mass of recrystallised paracetamol compared to the respective mass of two tablets (1.10g): Table 4 Brand Percentage of pure Paracetamol (%) Tesco 49.1 Morrisons 42.7 Superdrug 38.2 (Calculations may be found in the appendix) Reflux and titrations Table 5 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur without the test species present (paracetamol): Table 5 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 0.5 0.5 First 0.5 1.0 0.5 Second 1.0 1.5 0.5 Average Titre = (0.5+0.5)/2 = 0.5cm3 Table 6 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur using Tesco paracetamol: Table 6 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 8.6 8.6 First 8.6 15.8 7.2 Second 15.8 23.1 7.3 Average volume = (7.2+7.3)/2 = 7.25cm3 Amended titre = 7.25-0.5 = 6.75cm3 As 1 cm3 of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate = 0.007560g of Paracetamol 6.75 x 0.007560 = 0.05103g So, if 0.3g of tablet 0.05103g of pure Paracetamol Then, 0.55g of tablet 0.093555g of pure Paracetamol Percentage by mass (0.093555/0.55) x 100 =17.0% Table 7 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur using Morrisons paracetamol: Table 7 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 7.4 7.4 First 7.4 14.4 7.0 Second 14.4 21.5 7.1 Average volume = (7.0+7.1)/2 = 7.05cm3 Amended titre = 7.05-0.5 = 6.55cm3 As 1 cm3 of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate = 0.007560g of Paracetamol 6.55 x 0.007560 = 0.049518g So, if 0.3g of tablet 0.049518g of pure Paracetamol Then, 0.55g of tablet 0.090783g of pure Paracetamol Percentage by mass (0.090783/0.55) x 100 =16.5% Table 8 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur using Superdrug paracetamol: Table 8 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 9.7 9.7 First 9.7 18.6 8.9 Second 18.8 27.8 9.0 Average volume = (8.9+9.0)/2 = 8.95cm3 Amended titre = 8.95-0.5 = 8.45cm3 As 1 cm3 of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate = 0.007560g of Paracetamol 8.45 x 0.007560 = 0.063882g So, if 0.3g of tablet 0.063882g of pure Paracetamol Then, 0.55g of tablet 0.117117g of pure Paracetamol Percentage by mass (0.117117/0.55) x 100 =21.3% Table 9 shows the melting points of the paracetamol: Table 9 Brand Melting Point (0C) Tablet Sample Crude Sample Recrystallised Sample Tesco 140 155 163 Morrisons 145 157 167 Superdrug 139 159 164 Replicate Extraction and purification The crystals of the crude and recrystallised paracetamol were both white. The crude crystals were prismatic shaped while the recrystallised paracetamol formed long shards. Table 10 shows the mass of crude paracetamol from each tablet: Table 10 Brand Mass (g) Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Tesco 1.00 0.98 0.99 Morrisons 1.00 1.04 1.02 Superdrug 1.01 0.97 0.99 Table 11 shows the mass of recrystallised paracetamol from each tablet: Table 11 Brand Mass (g) Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Tesco 0.51 0.46 0.49 Morrisons 0.53 0.49 0.51 Superdrug 0.40 0.42 0.41 Table 12 shows the percentage by mass of crude paracetamol compared to the mass of two tablets (1.10g) Table 12 Brand Percentage of crude Paracetamol (%) Tesco 90.0 Morrisons 92.7 Superdrug 90.0 (Calculations may be found in the appendix) Table 13 shows the mass of recrystallised paracetamol compared to the mass of two tablets (1.10g): Table 13 Brand Percentage of pure Paracetamol (%) Tesco 44.5 Morrisons 46.4 Superdrug 37.3 (Calculations may be found in the appendix) Reflux and titrations Table 14 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur without the test species present (paracetamol): Table 14 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 0.5 0.5 First 0.5 1.1 0.6 Second 1.1 1.6 0.5 Average volume = (0.5+0.6)/2 = 0.55 cm3 Table 15 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur using Tesco paracetamol: Table 15 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 10.6 10.6 First 10.6 20.0 9.4 Second 20.0 29.3 9.3 Average volume = (9.3+9.4)/2 = 9.35cm3 Amended titre = 9.35-0.55 = 8.8cm3 As 1 cm3 of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate = 0.007560g of Paracetamol 8.8 x 0.007560 = 0.066528g So, if 0.3g of tablet 0.066528g of pure Paracetamol Then, 0.55g of tablet 0.121968g of pure Paracetamol Percentage by mass (0.121968/0.55) x 100 =22.2% Table 16 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur using Morrisons paracetamol: Table 16 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 21.5 30.5 9.0 First 30.5 39.5 9.0 Second 39.5 47.6 8.1 Third 0.00 8.6 8.6 Fourth 8.6 17.3 8.7 Average volume = (8.7+8.6)/2 = 8.65cm3 Amended titre = 8.65-0.55 = 8.1cm3 As 1 cm3 of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate = 0.007560g of Paracetamol 8.1 x 0.007560 = 0.061236g So, if 0.3g of tablet 0.061236g of pure Paracetamol Then, 0.55g of tablet 0.112266g of pure Paracetamol Percentage by mass (0.112266/0.55) x 100 =20.4% Table 17 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur using Superdrug paracetamol: Table 17 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 8.3 8.3 First 8.3 16.2 7.9 Second 16.2 24.2 8.0 Average volume = (7.9+8.0)/2 = 7.95cm3 Amended titre = 7.95-0.55 = 7.4cm3 As 1 cm3 of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate = 0.007560g of Paracetamol 7.4 x 0.007560 = 0.055944g So, if 0.3g of tablet 0.055944g of pure Paracetamol Then, 0.55g of tablet 0.102564g of pure Paracetamol Percentage by mass (0.102564/0.55) x 100 =18.6% Table 18 shows the melting points of the paracetamol: Table 18 Brand Melting Point (0C) Tablet Sample Crude Sample Recrystallised Sample Tesco 143 156 165 Morrisons 144 155 168 Superdrug 141 153 166 Averages of Initial and replicate Table 19 shows percentage by mass of recrystallised paracetamol: Table 19 Percentage by mass% Brand Initial Replicate Average Tesco 49.1 44.5 46.8 Morrrisons 42.7 46.4 44.6 Superdrug 38.2 37.3 37.8 Table 20 shows percentage by mass of pure paracetamol determined from reflux and titrations: Table 20 Percentage by mass % Brand Initial Replicate Average Tesco 17.0 22.2 19.6 Morrisons 16.5 20.4 18.5 Superdrug 21.3 18.6 20.0 Table 21 shows the melting point of paracetamol of crude and recrystallised paracetamol: Table 21 Melting point (oC) Crude Recrystallised Brand Initial Replicate Average Initial Replicate Average Tesco 155 156 156 163 165 164 Morrisons 157 155 156 167 168 168 Superdrug 159 153 156 164 166 165 Table 22 shows the results using a sintered glass crucible rather than filter paper during the filtration of Tesco recrystallised paracetamol: Table 22 Sample 1 Sample 2 Mass of crystals (g) 0.31 0.12 Conclusions The aim of this investigation was to determine the percentage by mass of pure paracetamol in formulations of branded paracetamol in 500mg tablets. Two techniques were employed so as to determine this: -Extraction and purification of tablets by filtration and recrystallisation. -Hydrolysis of the drug under reflux followed by titration against ammonium cerium sulphate. In addition to this, the purity of the paracetamol was investigated by determination of melting point of the respective brands of paracetamol. The results of these procedures are discussed below. Extraction and purification Using this procedure it was found that Tesco had the greatest percentage by mass of the active ingredient, paracetamol, at 46.8%. Morrisons tablet percentage by mass was 44.6% while Superdrug had a percentage by mass of 37.8%. Reflux and Titrations Using this procedure it was found that Superdrug had the greatest percentage by mass of the active ingredient, paracetamol at 20.0%. The Tesco percentage by mass was 19.6% while Morissons was 18.5%. Results were different for each respective brand of paracetamol and different between the two procedures. Melting Point The melting points of the crude paracetamol were all 156oC thus showing that all formulations of crude paracetamol had similar purity, and hence the first crystallization of the paracetamol was carried out very accurately. The melting point of the Morrisons recrystallised paracetamol was 168oC which compared well with the given melting point of 169-171oC. Superdrug had a melting point of 165oC while Tesco had a melting point of 164oc. This shows that Morrisons had the highest purity of pure paracetamol followed by Superdrug and then Tesco. Evaluation Evaluation of procedures Control of variables During the filtration and recrystallising process two tablets were used in each sample and two samples were taken. This, alongside the duplication of results, gives 8 tablets which were used in the determination using this method and an average taken. This increased the reliability of the results. During the procedures the same balances, burettes, flasks and pipettes were used so as to reduce the effects of error in these measurements. When titrations were carried out, a rough titration was initially done so as to determine the equivalence point. This was followed by accurate titrations. When two concurrent values were within 0.1cm3, an average was taken between these two values. The average was used to determine the mass of pure paracetamol greatly increasing the reliability of the results. Since the end point of the titration was not very obvious, previous titrations were kept aside so as to standardise the intensity of yellow in the solution, so that all titrations had the same end point colour. This increased the reliability of the titrations. All equipment used was cleaned using propanone to prevent chemicals from previous experiments contaminating this investigation. In addition to this the burettes and pipettes were rinsed with the solutions, before being filled with the same solution to prevent contamination. When using the balance, as far as possible, it was placed away from draughts and windows so as to prevent the wind causing error in the weighing of substances. Where possible, all reaction vessels and weighing receptacles were rinsed using a little of the liquid which would be used. This increased the yield of results, preventing the reactants being lost in the process. Modifications Initially, when dissolving the paracetamol in propanone, the tablet was not crushed however it took an inordinate time for the tablet to dissolve; by the time it had dissolved most of the propanone had evaporated The volume of propanone was increased from 20cm3 to 50cm3 because more paracetamol dissolved. This allowed a greater percentage of the paracetamol to be extracted from the tablets. Consequentially it took longer for the crude paracetamol crystals to form. Initially a sintered glass crucible was used to filter the recrystallised paracetamol. This resulted in the paracetamol being lost, so filter paper was fluted and used instead. This resulted in a greater mass of recrystallised paracetamol being collected. When the paracetamol was being added to sulphuric acid, initially it was unheated and just swirled, however not all the paracetamol dissolved and hence, the sulphuric acid was warmed with the paracetamol to dissolve the crushed tablet before being boiled under reflux. When using the ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate, it was found that if left for any length of time greater than one hour the solute came out of solution, therefore, before pouring the solution into the burette, it was stirred vigorously using a magnetic stirrer to ensure the same concentration of solution was used in every titration. Because of this, the burette was only set up immediately before use. Evaluation of results Both procedures resulted in significantly lower percentages than the mass of paracetamol in each tablet as stated on the box. The expected percentage by mass was expected to be 90.9%. This is calculated as shown: Mass of tablet – 0.55g Mass of paracetamol (on box) 0.50g (0.5/0.55) x 100 = 90.9% Generally the replicate compared well with the initial experiment, with a maximum difference of 4.6% by mass for the first procedure. For the second procedure there was a maximum difference of 5.2% by mass. This can be put down to errors in the equipment and human errors when carrying out procedures. The fact that both procedures indicated different formulations contained the most paracetamol, may be due to the fact that often paracetamol was taken from different blister packs, and hence from different batches, which may contain different masses of paracetamol. However human errors and errors in equipment are more likely to be to blame. It can also be broadly sai